Social Performance and Social Influence Essay Example for Free

Social Performance and Social Influence Essay Social psychologist, Dr. Robert Cialdini has researched basic principles that govern how one person may influence another. You will read about these six principles in his 2002 article The Science and Practice of Persuasion. Social Performance Aristotle first called humans social animals. People tend to gather, play, and work in groups. Groups fulfill a variety of functions such as satisfying the need to belong, providing support and intimacy, and assisting in accomplishing tasks that individuals could not accomplish alone, etc. In Chapter 13 of the textbook, groups will be defined as two or more people working together on a task in which the outcome is quantifiable. This discussion will focus on two major areas that have been researched since the end of the 19th century: social facilitation and social loafing. Social Facilitation At first glance, these terms seem to be opposing behaviors: social facilitation refers to the fact that people work harder in groups, whereas social loafing describes their tendency reduce their efforts when in groups. The difference, it appears, is how people view the individuals in their groups–whether they perceive those in the group as being with them us or against them. If group members are against them, they perceive them as competitors, evaluators, or sources of comparison, which is likely to increase or facilitate their efforts. If they are with them, sharing in the demands of the task and evaluation, they are likely to loaf or reduce our efforts. These findings appear counterintuitive. Research on social facilitation began with Triplett (1989) who observed that cyclists pedaled faster, or performed better, when others were present than when performing alone. He argued that the other biker was a stimulus, arousing a competitive instinct in the cyclist. He tested his theory by asking children to wind fishing reels either alone or beside other children. The majority of the children turned the wheel faster when working alongside another child than when reeling alone. Allport (1924) termed this effect social facilitation. Still, it seemed that many disagreed about whether the presence of others increased or decreased performance on tasks. Zajonc (1965) renewed interest in social facilitation, and suggested that the presence of others enhanced a dominant response–which is the most probable response on a given task. If the task is simple and well-learned, the dominant response will be facilitated. For example, if you were a skilled concert pianist, performing in front of others would increase your proficiency on the task; you would play beautifully. Since you are not skilled at this art, being observed by others would no doubt cause anxiety and would result in quite the opposite effect, inhibiting your performance. Zajonc was suggesting that the presence of others increases drive. Others were still arguing that it was the evaluation or the competition associated with others being present that produced the drive. Whether it was mere presence or evaluation apprehension that increased the drive, the drive theory remained the dominant thought of the time. Alternative approaches to social-facilitation effects fall into three classes: The first was the continued thought that the presence of others increases drive by evaluation apprehension. The second thought suggested that the situation places demands on the individual to behave in a particular way; individuals are engaged in self-presentation and self-awareness. The third idea argued that the presence of others affects focus and attention to the task, meaning that the task becomes cognitive. Hence, the controversy over whether it is the mere presence of others or evaluation that causes social facilitation is unresolved. Social Loafing Social facilitation research demonstrates that the presence of others sometimes enhances performance, yet at times reduces it. But, how does working with others affect motivation? Many would argue that groups should energize and motivate. The tendency for individuals to work less hard on a collective task than on an individual task is called social loafing. For example, those group projects at work or school where a few individuals did the majority of the work–social loafing. Research in this area has been conducted in a way that makes individuals believe that they are either working alone or working with others–then measures efforts toward the task. For example, Ringelmann (Kravitz Martin, 1986) had volunteers pull on a rope as hard as they could in groups of varying sizes. Their efforts decreased as group sizes increased. This was explained in two ways: their motivation decreased as groups size increased or maybe the larger groups were not able to coordinate their efforts efficiently. Researchers sought to tease apart these two factors, focusing on motivation. You can imagine that it was difficult to devise methods that lead participants to believe they were either working alone (when they were not) or with others (when they were working alone), which lends to the difficulty of studying social loafing. However, over 100 studies (Steiner, 1972; Griffith, Fichman, Moreland, 1989; Jackson Williams, 1985; Henningsen et al. , 2000) have tested the effects of groups on motivation, and social loafing has been replicated in most of these studies. Other theories have attempted to explain social loafing. Social impact theory states that when a group is working together, the expectation is that the effort should be diffused across all participants, resulting in diminished effort. Arousal reduction postulates that the presence of others should increase drive only when they are observers and reduce our efforts when they are coworkers. Evaluation potential suggests that social loafing occurs because individual efforts are so difficult to identify during a collective task; one can easily hide in the crowd or may feel they will not be acknowledged for their hard work. Dispensability of effort argues that individuals may feel their efforts are unnecessary or dispensable. The group simply does not need them. An integrative theory: the collective effort model states that individuals will work hard on a task only to the degree to which they believe their efforts will be instrumental in leading to outcomes they value, personally. Hence, the value they place on the task (and their efforts) depends on their personal beliefs, task meaningfulness, favorable interactions with the group, the nature of the rewards, and the extent to which their future goals are impacted by the task. Social loafing can be moderated, or reduced, when individuals efforts can be identified or evaluated, when individuals are working on a task they deem as important or of personal relevance, or when individuals are working with cohesive groups or close friends. Individual differences or characteristics also influence who engages in social loafing less because they value collective outcomes. For example, a need for affiliation, a hard work ethic, or high self-monitoring can influence effort. It should be clear that the mere presence of others is arousing. It appears that if others are competitors or evaluators they facilitate motivation to work harder. If individuals see others as a part of themselves, they can hide behind them or their efforts can get lost in the efforts of others. Further research in this area can help us determine how our view of others affects our motivation and performance. Social Influence Processes of Control and Change Social influence is one of the primary research areas in social psychology and refers to the ways in which opinions and attitudes influence the opinions and attitudes of others. Two types of social influence can be identified in groups: influence aimed at maintaining group norms (social control) or changing group norms (social change). The most common form of social control is conformity, where an individual complies with or accepts the groups views. Since the influence is typically within a context of a group of people influencing an individual, it is referred to as majority influence. Another type of social control is obedience, where individuals obey an authority figure, often against their will. For group norms to change, a small subset of the group must resist the majority view, which is termed minority influence. If minorities never resisted, group opinions would persist, fashions would never change, innovations would not come about, etc. It must be clear that the term majority refers to the larger group of people who hold the normative view and has power over others. Minority groups tend to be small, hold nonnormative positions, and wield very little power. This study textbook is concerned with two influence processes: processes that ensure that others adhere to the groups position (social control; conformity and obedience) or processes that aim to change the groups position (social change: innovation and active minorities). Social influence has studied how individuals conform to the majority, often by giving an obvious erroneous response to a question. According to Festinger (1950, 1954), this occurs because there are social pressures for groups to reach consensus, especially when there is a group goal. Individuals seek social approval and seek others to verify their opinions. Deutsch and Gerard (1955) distinguish between normative social influence (conforming to expectations of others) and informational social influence (accepting information from the group as reality). Another view is that people conform over concerns for positive self-evaluations, to have good relationships with others, and to better understand a situation by reducing uncertainty. Social influence also addresses why people comply with acts that clearly cause harm to another. The study of obedience is intimately tied to one social psychologist–Stanley Milgram (1963). His post-WWII research aimed to understand why people willingly engaged in the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis. People probably preferred to believe these were evil, disturbed men who were intrinsically evil? However, many of them claimed they were not responsible for their behavior. After all, they were simply following orders. In Milgrams (1963) classic study, he led participants (who were assigned to be teachers) to believe they were administering harmful shocks to the learners each time they made an error on a task. The experimenter (the authority figure) demanded they increase the level of shock for each incorrect response. As shocks increased, the receiver (the learner, who was out of the sight of the teacher) responded with distressed reactions. However, the teacher was encouraged, even demanded, to continue the experiment, even though he believed the learner was experiencing extreme distress. The question was, to what extent normal people would obey the instructions of the authority figure and administer harmful levels of shock to harm another individual. Milgrams results showed that a full 65% of all participants administered every level of shock, surpassing levels believed to do fatal harm to subjects. Milgrams findings have been replicated with consistent results. Why did they obey? Milgram offered the following explanations: (a) they had entered into a contract with the experimenter and did not wish to spoil the experiment; (b) they were absorbed in the experiment and lost sight of the implications of their actions; (c) the participants are acting for the experimenter; they may be pushing the buttons, but they are not responsible, the experimenter is. Notice these are all situational explanations; participants were put into a powerful role relationship with the experimenter. However, when the experimenter was not visible, or another participant played the role of the experimenter, obedience rates decreased, but did not fall to zero, indicating the role relationship did not fully account for their obedience. Milgrams research remains some of the most intriguing and influential in social psychology. Minority Influence Moscovicis (1976) book Social Influence and Social Change, he argues that minorities can create conflict by offering a different perspective, thereby challenging the dominant or majority view. Moscovici claims that people trying to avoid conflict may dismiss the minority position, and possibly denigrate it. However, when the minority demonstrates commitment to their position, the majority may consider the minority view as a viable alternative. He called this the minoritys behavioral style–meaning the way the message is organized and communicated. By standing up to the majority, the minority demonstrates that it is certain, confident, committed, and not easily persuaded. Researchers have compared majority and minority influence. Conversion theory is the dominant perspective and argues that all forms of influence, whether minority or majority, create conflict that individuals are motivated to reduce. However, people employ different processes depending on whether the conflict is the result of majority influence or minority influence. Comparison process suggests that people focus attention on fitting in, or complying with what others say. Their goal is to identify with the group and comply with the majority position, often times without examining the majoritys arguments in detail. Social comparison can drive majority influence, but cannot motivate minority influence, according to Moscovici (1976), because people desire to disassociate themselves with undesirable groups. Because minority groups tend to be distinctive, they stand out, and this encourages a validation process where some examine the judgments in order to confirm or validate them–to see what it is the minority saw or to understand the minoritys view. This process can lead to increased message processing which results in an attitude change on an indirect, latent, or private level. Convergent-divergent theory is proposed by Nemeth (1986) and simply states that people expect to share the same attitude as the majority and to differ from the minority (the false-consensus heuristic). Stress is the result of realizing that the majority has a different perspective than oneself, especially if one is in the physical presence of the majority. Stress narrows ones attention and majority influence, and then leads to convergent thinking. Minorities, on the other hand, do not cause high levels of stress, since they hold different views, which allows for less restricted focus of attention and leads to a greater consideration of alternatives that may not have been considered without the influence of the minority view. This results in creative and original solutions. Other theories that integrate minority and majority influence include mathematical models, objective-consensus models, conflict-elaboration theory, context/comparison model, and self-categorization theory. More contemporary models include social-cognitive responses with an emphasis on information-processing such as the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic systematic model we discussed in an earlier chapter. New research continues to develop. Conclusion This module reviewed social psychological research that has made great contributions to the understanding of human behavior. Early research (e. g. , Triplett, 1898; Zajonc, 1965) led to the beginning of the relatively new field of social psychology.

Chinese Business Culture Essay Example for Free

Chinese Business Culture Essay In accordance with our theories, it is necessary for Western exporters to learn about the Chinese business culture in order to be successful in marketing in China. There is an old Chinese proverb, â€Å"Enter village, follow customs†. The Chinese civilization has a long history and evidence shows that the way to get things done in China is to do it in the Chinese way. Chinese business culture is the key to the Chinese way of doing business and their style of negotiating (Fang 1998, p. 71). In this chapter, we aim to provide a framework to help those Western exporters get a better understanding of Chinese people’s business culture. 1. 0 Influence of Confucianism The Chinese culture encompasses diverse and competing philosophies, of which, Confucianism has been identified as the foundation of China’s great cultural tradition. Confucian values emphasis on interpersonal relationship and has provided Chinese business people with a relationship-based business approach (Bond Wang 1983). An ordinary Chinese person would also agree that business and marketing in China is about relationships to a great extent. The principle of harmony and trust in Confucianism reflects an aspiration toward a conflict-free and group-based system of social relations, and also means that communication in a business negotiation should be harmonious. Further, the principle of hierarchy emphasizes that each individual should be conscious of her or his position in the society, which is also evident in a business negotiation in China, especially in a decision-making process. (Bond Wang 1983) 2. 0 Guan Xi The Chinese term guan xi, rooted from Confucianism and translated into relationships or connections, is one of the most important traits of Chinese business culture, referring to the concept of drawing on connections or networks in order to secure favours in personal or business relations (Davies et al. 1995). It is a set of concentric circles of contacts, typically stretching from close family, to distant, to more distant relatives, to classmates, to friends, to friends’ friends, and so forth. In the Chinese business world, networking of guan xi is a peculiar advantage which can contribute a variety of commercial privileges and a great deal of business potentials for the marketer. This approach contrasts sharply with the deal-focused, task-oriented business cultures of North America and northern Europe (Gesteland Seyk 2002). Therefore, to establish a great guan xi with the Chinese counterpart, partners, customers, even the Chinese authorities and government should be an extremely important marketing strategy of Western exporter that wants to be successful on the Chinese market. 3. 0 Establishing a relationship Being relationship-focused, Chinese prefer to deal with family, friends, and persons who they know well and who they can trust. They are uncomfortable talking business with strangers, especially strangers who also are foreigners (Gesteland Seyk 2002). For this reason, the first step of business negotiation in China takes a lot of time outside of the office for socializing. The Chinese invite foreign guests for dinners, sightseeing, and other activities in order to facilitate the process of getting to know each other. The Chinese will want to know about this foreign company, its reputation and its management, and will be especially interested in the background, rank and personality of the individual foreign executives making the visit. A Western executive may become impatient with this step, both out of pressure to reach a deal quickly and out of the desire to separate business from the private aspect. However, what the Chinese are really doing at this stage is to test the sincerity, intelligence and deference of their prospective business partner before considering doing business with him or her. (Fang 1998) 4. 0 Attitudes to contracts Confucianism’s principles of interpersonal relationship and trust can even make many Chinese business people put relationships before contract (Alston He 1996). Many Chinese believe that risk in the business can be minimized by developing a quality relationship of guan xi with their business partners. They are more likely to see a contract as a basis of relationship rather than a legal document. Most of the Chinese executives involved in international business realize that Western executives require formal documents in which delivery dates, responsibilities and procedures are explicitly stated and will respect the clauses which they have agreed to. While the Chinese tend to think that, once a relationship has been established, future problems can be solved without legal recourse. And the Chinese are inclined to prefer agreements that are less detailed than the Westerner. Because, for them, changes are anticipated and those detailed contracts can become relatively useless. (Alston He 1996) Therefore, for a Western exporter, it would be wise to follow the Chinese model and only enter into business relationships with partners one knows and trusts. 5. 0 Face Another important Chinese cultural trait is the Chinese concept of face. In China, face is one’s good reputation in others’ eyes, one’s self-respect, dignity and prestige. If a Chinese is insulted, embarrassed, shamed or criticized in public, he or she will lose face. People can also give their counterpart face by making compliments and doing small favours. Giving face is an effective way to build a solid relationship (Gesteland Seyk 2002). Face issue is also evident in a Chinese business negotiation context. In the business world, negotiations should be conducted to assure that the Chinese counterparts keep face. Because of face consciousness, a Chinese negotiator would refuse to make any concession. Some of the many delays that Western business negotiators encounter are caused by the Chinese counterpart’s unwillingness to risk losing face. A lot of evidence has shown that a great deal will be gained by helping the Chinese to win face and a great deal will be lost by any slight action which may cause the Chinese losing face. As a result, cognition of the Chinese concept of face plays a critical role in successfully doing business with the Chinese. (Fang 1998) 6. 0 Holistic thinking In general, the Chinese have a deductive cognition, which means reasoning based on theory and logic (Brake et al. 1995). The Chinese are highly deductive in their assessment of opportunities and problems. They usually want to be introduced to a new product, service or other business opportunity by way of a theory. This theory should provide them with a straightforward overview of the opportunity. The meaning and application of the principles of this theory should then be demonstrated with data and facts, although quantitative justification and analysis play a less important role in China than in many inductive Western business environments. Chinese people are likely to be resistant to business proposals which are not presented first in a logical form. (Brake et al. 1995) 7. 0 Speech acts As China has a high-context culture, hinting is an exceedingly common way of communication for the Chinese. Sometimes, Chinese speakers feel that they have been very frank with a clear hint, while the Western listeners still can’t catch the point at all. Elements of â€Å"atmosphere† surrounding the conversation, such as previous experience, hierarchy and many other cultural factors modify the literal meaning of a Chinese speaker’s sentences. For example, â€Å"I agree† might mean â€Å"I agree with 15 percent of what you say†. And â€Å"We might be able to† could mean â€Å"Not a chance†. What is said is often not what the listener is expected to understand. This is one of the biggest culture shocks in many business negotiations between the Westerner and the Chinese (Johnston 1991, p. 209).

Effects of the World War on the Cold War

Effects of the World War on the Cold War This essay will firstly consider the major events of the inter-World War period: the creation of the League of Nations, the role of American isolationism, and the Great Depression and its consequences for Europe. Secondly, it will consider how these events influenced American foreign policy and shaped the American response to the perceived threat of Soviet expansion in Europe in the early post-World War Two period. In the aftermath of World War One, Woodrow Wilson asserted that the best way to ensure world peace was the creation of the League of Nations, a forum where grievances could be heard and debated so that war could be avoided. The main reason for its failure was the subsequent American return to its tradition of isolationism, which was caused by the shock of the war’s brutality as well as indifference to the plight of Europeans. The Great Depression began in 1929 and its effects were felt worldwide. It encouraged extremist and nationalist views among many populations and gave Hitler his opportunity to take power in Germany and reduced the ability of Great Britain and France to maintain security in Europe.[1] Orthodox historians hold that after World War Two the desire of the United States for a new world order based on the rules of the United Nations Charter and Soviet attempts to take control in Europe caused the onset of the Cold War. However, revisionist historians argue that United States policy makers caused the Cold War by failing to differentiate between peripheral and vital interests and unreasonably not allowing a Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. As the Soviets had destroyed two thirds of the German army to bring this area under their control the US position can easily be seen as unfair.[2] After the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia, US troops were sent to Russian cities and despite being ordered not to interfere in the ensuing civil war, they did help anti-Communist forces indirectly. This shows that America was apprehensive at best about the Communist takeover in Russia and this combined with the Soviet policy of encouraging the spread of Communism worldwide ensured that Washington refused to establish diplomatic relations with Moscow. This could be seen as the start of the Cold War.[3] In the aftermath of the Second World War it was left to the Soviet Union and the United States to decide how the new world order would be shaped. Americans recalled that they had not taken seriously the threat posed by Hitler during the 1930s and were encouraged to see Stalin as a new Hitler and as a man that must be stopped. American leaders may have been less willing to reason with Soviet demands because they feared that this would be seen as appeasement in America and in Moscow and would only embolden the Soviets. Therefore rather than a return to isolationism and the policy of appeasement that had devastating consequences in relation to Hitler’s Germany the United States resolved to tackling the Soviets in a confrontational manner.[4] George F. Kennan said that for totalitarianism â€Å"there are at least no better examples that Germany and Russia.†[5] The view that the Soviets presented a threat to America was enhanced by the widespread view in America that Soviet military victories in Eastern Europe were acts of aggression rather than a mission of liberation. Soviet security concerns caused by a history of constant invasion from the West were not recognised and the prevailing view was that after conquering the whole of Europe the Soviet Union would challenge the rest of the world.[6] The failure of the League of Nations was attributed mainly to the lack of American commitment to playing a major role in world affairs. Therefore when the United Nations was set-up the United States committed to playing a major role in world affairs. This meant confronting any perceived threat of aggression directly with the hope of stamping out any threat to world peace quickly and put the US on course for a collision with the Soviet Union. This led to the Soviet defensive policy of creating buffer zones defend against possible invasion being misinterpreted in Washington as aggressive behaviour that posed a threat to world peace. The problem with the United Nations was that whilst it was endorsed by all sides, key differences between each side’s respective positions were concealed. Thus many in America believed that the United Nations would be able to ensure world peace but controversial issues such as Eastern Europe were not resolved. This caused a tide of disillusionment with the UN to follow as it failed to live up to its expectations when these controversial issues became crises between the wartime allies.[7] American refusal to grant the Soviet Union a meaningful loan after World War Two, like that given to Great Britain, rejuvenated old Soviet fears and contributed to its uncooperativeness. To grant a loan would have helped heal Soviet economic wounds and dispel fears of another Great Depression therefore reducing the insecurities that lead to aggression. It also would have given a strong base for continued cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union after the wars end.[8] In 1944 United States Secretary of State Hull announced â€Å"A world in economic chaos would be forever a breading ground for trouble and war.†[9] Hull believed that lower barriers to world trade would help sow the seeds of world peace because as classical liberals had long argued commerce is the ‘main bond between nations.’ Americans saw the key to avoiding another depression as guaranteeing markets abroad for their goods and the improvement in the standard of living worldwide that would follow as a way to reduce the likelihood of future war. Soviet refusal to play a role in the Bretton Woods monetary system should have been anticipated and posed a threat to the American belief that war could be prevented through economics.[10] The Cold War was partly caused by the lack of a common enemy that posed a greater threat to the Soviet Union and the United States than they posed to each other. This is because World War Two bankrupted Britain and left Germany and Japan in ruins. This can be seen throughout history that fragile alliances breakdown almost as soon as the common enemy is defeated. In this case the cracks began to appear long before Germany was fully defeated.[11] It could be argued that because of the inherent differences in Soviet and American ideology, the Cold War was inevitable regardless of the actions of statesmen on both sides. This is because the US was determined to see the spread of capitalist democracy as it saw this as the best way to prevent war and the Soviet Union believed that worldwide adoption of Communism was inevitable and that inter state war would be replaced by class war.[12] World War Two caused a shift in United States foreign policy. Previously, most Americans believed that a minimal amount of overseas commitments and alliances as the key to security. However, after World War Two involvement in world affairs rather than isolationism was seen as the key to preventing new wars. The Soviets, however, saw the key to world peace as staying strong themselves and keeping Germany weak rather than Washington’s collective security and increased world trade.[13] The American vision for the post war world was strongly influenced by a preoccupation with the past. Roosevelt was determined to avoid repeating the mistakes that had led to World War Two and so pursued the policies of self-determination, increased world trade, creation of international institutions and unconditional surrender of belligerents. However, he failed to realise the effect that these policies would have on his other main aim of ensuring continued cooperation with the Soviet Union after the end of the war.[14] References Bagby, W. Americas International Relations Since World War I. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Barston, R, ed. International Politics since 1945. Hampshire: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 1991. Cole, W. An Interpretive History of American Foreign Relations, Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1968. Gaddis, J. The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947. London and New York: Columbia University Press, 1972. Paterson, T. Meeting the Communist Threat : Truman to Reagan. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 1 Footnotes [1] Cole, W. An Interpretive History of American Foreign Relations, Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1968, pp. 373-380. [2] Bresler, R. ‘The Origins and Development of the Cold War, 1945-58’ in Barston, R, ed. International Politics since 1945. Hampshire: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 1991, pg 1. [3] Bagby, W. Americas International Relations Since World War I. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pg 56. [4] Paterson, T. Meeting the Communist Threat : Truman to Reagan. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, pp. 4-12. [5] Ibid, pg 4. [6] Ibid, pg 11. [7] Gaddis, J. The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947. London and New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, pp. 30-31. [8] Paterson, T. Meeting the Communist Threat : Truman to Reagan. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, pp 107-108. [9] Gaddis, J. The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947. London and New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, pg 18. [10] Ibid., pp. 18-23. [11] Bagby, W. Americas International Relations Since World War I. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pg 56, pp. 141-142. [12] Cole, W. An Interpretive History of American Foreign Relations, Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1968, pg 473. [13] Gaddis, J. The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947. London and New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, pp. 353-354. [14] Ibid., pg 31.

Fatherhood and the Unmarried Adolescent African-American Male Essay

Just about a quarter of all children are now born out of wedlock.... Add to that the substantial fraction of children born into marriages that will not survive.... What do these high rates of marital instability imply for patterns of childbearing, and especially for fathers’ involvement with their children? (Furstenberg & Harris, 1992, p. 199) The vast amount of research on the topic of adolescent pregnancies has historically focused on the female (such as Furstenberg, 1976 and Stack, 1974). Social scientists have tried to understand the problem and also help the adolescent mother following her decision to give birth to a child. In some places, such as Oakland, California, 73% of adolescents giving birth are African American (Smith, 1988, p.269; Massey, 1991, p. 117). With this in mind, social workers have spent most of their efforts helping adolescent African-American women. The Department of Children and Family Services (DCFS) and Aid to Families of Dependent Children (AFDC) offer help for many women and their children. Unfortunately, the social workers usually â€Å"viewed Black adolescent fathers either as a cause of the problem of adolescent parenthood or as a partial solution in their assigned role of financial provider† (Smith, 1988, p. 269). Introductory quote focuses on an important public conversation about children born out of wedlock and fathers' involvement with their children. Furtstenburg is considered an expert on the topic of pregnancy among adolescents and the changing American family. The writer further identifies the context for the research as the social sciences and suggests how this research has influenced social workers. Sources provide general background information, sp... ...ing American family: Sociological and demographic perspectives (pp. 197-223). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Furstenberg, F. (1976). Unplanned parenthood: The social consequences of teenage childbearing. New York: Free Press. Hendricks, L. E. (1988). A preliminary report on three ethnic groups. Adolescence, 91, 711-720 Horton, C. P. & Smith, J. C. (Eds.) (1990). Statistical record of Black America. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc. Massey, G. (1991). The flip side of teen mothers: A look at teen fathers. In B. P. Bowser. (Ed.), Black male adolescents: Parenting and education in community context (pp. 117-128). New York: University Press of America. Smith, L. A. (1988). Black adolescent fathers: Issues for service provision. Social Work, 33. 269-272. Stack, C. B. (1974). All our kin: Strategies for survival in a black community. New York: Harper & Row.

Alcohol and Drinking - Alcoholism :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Alcohol and Alcoholism When people hear the word "drug," they usually think of an illegal substance such as cocaine, heroin, marijuana, or any other drug that can be found on the street. Most people never consider the fact that consuming alcohol can be just as harmful as illegal drugs, not only on the body, but on the mind and spirit as well (#1). If constantly abused, alcohol can be even worse for one than taking illegal drugs (#5) Irresponsible drinking can destroy a person's life as well as the lives of those around them. When people become both physically and psychologically addicted to alcohol, they become an alcoholic and suffer from a disease called alcoholism. One denotation of this term is "a diseased condition of the system, brought about by the continued use of alcoholic liquors" (Webster's Dictionary, 37). Another definition of this term, given to me by my English professor, Janet Gould who is in fact, a recovering alcoholic, is that alcoholism is a mental dependence and a physical allergy (#3) . Alcoholism somehow affects us all through a parent, sibling, friend, or even personal encounters with a stranger. In fact "alcoholics may become angry and argumentative, quiet and withdrawn, or depressed. They may also feel more anxious, sad, tense, and confused. They then seek relief by drinking more" (Gitlow 175). Alcohol and Alcoholism is a big part in our society, which should be recognized and dealt with. In addition "about 7%" of all adults who consume alcohol in the United States today are considered alcoholics, or have suffered from some sort of drinking problem in their lives (Secretary of health viii). "Although there is no indication of how the alcoholism of families members is linked ... [through genetics], studies show that about 50 to 80 percent of all alcoholics have had a close relative that was an alcoholic" (Caplan 266). Many times alcoholism starts during a person's high school and college years; however some teenagers and young adults frequently abuse alcohol and never think about the physical, mental, and emotional toll that alcohol can have on a person's life (#3). Alcoholism usually begins with social drinking then a person will find excuses to drink more often (Burgess 13). When alcohol is made more readily available to an individual, such as in a college environment, it increases the risk that person will drink excessively (Ewing 173) (#5).

Jewish Ghettos Essay -- essays research papers

Jewish ghettos: The basic history of the formation of the Jewish ghettos, including the everyday life and economic hardships faced by the communities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By definition, a ghetto is an area, usually characterized by poverty and poor living conditions, which houses many people of a similar religion, race or nationality. They served to confine these groups of people and isolate them from the rest of the community because of political or social differences. However, the Jewish ghettos established throughout Europe were more than just a way for the Germans to isolate the Jewish community. They were the first step in making Hitler’s final solution possible. The ghettos were the means of organizing all of the Jews together and preparing them to be shipped to concentration camps. However, these ghettos soon evolved into political, religious and social entities that served the community and began to resemble a form of self-ruling government. Furthermore, many of these ghettos were different from one another because of different internal structures of the Jewish community or the diversity of the personalities of the l eaders of the council in the Jewish community. However, the ghettos must be analyzed as if they are all â€Å"one history.†(Holocaust) In fact, many of the communities were the same with regards to Jewish perceptions and reactions concerning life and the difficulties being faced by each community in its occupied territory. This research paper discusses the common everyday trials and tribulations faced by all the ghettos and looks at the ghettos from a political and socio-economic point of view. (Holocaust)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First, it is important to understand the history behind the ghettos and discuss their centralization in Poland. Hitler incorporated the western part of Poland into Germany according to race doctrine. He intended that Poles were to become the slaves of Germany and that the two million Jews therein were to be concentrated in ghettos in Poland's larger cities. Later this would simplify transport to the death camps. Nazi occupation authorities officially told the story that Jews were natural carriers of all types of diseases, especially typhus, and that it was necessary to isolate Jews from the Polish community. Jewish neighborhoods thus were transformed into prisons. The five major ghettos were located... ... not go far enough to commit acts of terrorism simply because of Faith. Jihad, or holy war, is the sole emotion, not act, which strengthens the will to perform horrible crimes on humanity. Simply saying that a faith-based idea can go as far as the perpetrator is willing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, we have studied the history and present events surrounding the Holocaust. We have studied the ideology and the reasons behind both the Jewish and the German involvement. In the end, I found that I still feel the same way about the Holocaust that I did before taking this class. I think that it takes a certain kind of person to commit those murderous acts and the idea of â€Å"just following orders† is ridiculous because it assumes that free will is no longer considered strong enough to prevent the ordered killing of millions of people. The important aspects of today’s society in relation to the existence of God in our lives are disturbed by the lack of faith in God for not being around when his people are suffering the most. How can these acts, like the Holocaust and the genocidal feud in Rwanda, be analyzed without accepting the absence of God in relation to these events?

Philosophy of Teaching Essay

Philosophy of teaching is a self-reflective statement of your beliefs about teaching and learning. It discuss how you put your beliefs in practice by including concrete examples of what you do or anticipate doing in class. My teaching philosophy is ‘participatory learning’. It a type of learning process whereby learners are put in the centre of every learning situation, in other words pupils take active part of the lesson presentation. . I hold this belief in the sense that, when children are involve actively in the lesson delivery with the relevant teaching methods and techniques and also appropriate learning materials, it’s inspires them to explore and take up their own responsibility. This belief once again, gives children the opportunities to discuss, talk and ask questions. It also allow the teacher to listen to the children and see how their understanding is developing, it makes learning permanent in any learning situation. Validity of my philosophy To validate my philosophy, James Hartley (1998) said that activity is very important in learning. Learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive; therefore learning by doing is to be applauded. My teaching style can best be described as one that incorporates different methods and techniques that encourages learners to be active participant in the delivering of lesson. By engaging students in variety of activities that address each child’s learning style, I believe that they will achieve academic success and build the self confidence. Learning occurs when a student is fully encouraged in the process, make a personal connection with the information taught and apply the knowledge to variety of experiences. When this happened the child is inspired to become engaged over and over again, make connections and apply his or her knowledge. Application of my philosophy I understand the importance of using participatory learning to appropriately address the different learning styles and needs of students in order to become effective in the near future. Consequently, it is extremely important to determine each child’s dominated learning style and continually monitor each student’s academic progress through a variety of assessment in order to plan instructions that draw upon each child’s strength to improve academic development. With my teaching philosophy in mind, I try my best to prepare my lesson before time, rehearse on my own base on the teaching and learning materials prepared and available. Introduction of which is an important part of lesson delivery is done first based on the relevant previous knowledge of student then proceed to tell them objectives of the lesson and the future benefit of the topic. In doing so the learner become informed of what would be discussed as the lesson proceed, they think critically and consciously about each objectives. For example I taught the topic shapes and space with the sub topic solid shapes. I used variety of relia like Milo tin, milk tins paper boxes, match boxes, etc. During the presentation stage l allowed pupils to have a look at the TLMs. Teacher then assisted pupils to explore the materials and came out with their own findings. Pupils discussed their findings to identify the shapes as solid shapes while teacher served as a facilitator. Teacher also assisted pupils to identify the parts of the various solid shapes talked about. Likewise in all the topics I treated during the program I used methods and techniques that allowed pupils to fully participate in the lessons. Such techniques include activity method, demonstration, discussion, games, etc. As a teacher I only served as a facilitator and guide to all the activities that went on during teaching and learning process. Effectiveness This philosophy â€Å"participatory learning† with the needed teaching and learning materials is very effective as it enhance pupils taking part fully in the lesson that is they communicate, ask questions, write down points and share ideas with friends. Conclusion I will therefore conclude that when a teacher impact knowledge by involving pupils in every activity or lesson, with appropriate, adequate and suitable learning materials using a variety of teaching techniques such as demonstration, dramatization and role play, the teacher will achieve his or her set goals and get the needed feedback from pupils. This also makes learning more practical and permanent.